Illuminated landscapes:
urbanization’s influence on predator and prey behavior

Urban development and habitat fragmentation have reshaped ecosystems across North America, creating heavily modified landscapes characterized by dense human populations, built infrastructure, and widespread artificial light and noise pollution. Yet the specific components of urbanization that alter wildlife spatiotemporal activity remain insufficiently understood, particularly across gradients of human disturbance. Using data from 61 camera trap stations in two contrasting urban landscapes in California, USA, we examined the influence of multiple anthropogenic factors on the diel activity of an apex predator (puma, Puma concolor), a mesocarnivore (bobcat, Lynx rufus), and an ungulate prey species (mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus). We quantified the effects of artificial light at night (ALAN), proximity to noise pollution, moonlight intensity, and co-occurring wildlife on nighttime habitat use. General Linear Mixed Models revealed species-specific responses to these urban stressors. Pumas and bobcats were less active in areas with more ALAN. Pumas also avoided areas of high human use but were more active where mule deer were present. In contrast, mule deer increased nighttime activity in artificially illuminated areas while avoiding noise and bright moonlight, consistent with predictions under the human shield hypothesis. Our findings highlight ALAN as a major driver of wildlife behavior at the urban edge, interacting with sensory conditions and human disturbance to restructure predator-prey dynamics. As human activity increasingly extends into nighttime hours, overlapping with wildlife, targeted management strategies, integrating artificial light mitigation with public education, may help reduce human-wildlife conflicts.